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INTERNET
G
Velocity of Media Consumption: TV vs. the Web
Alertbox: Web Usability Newsletter
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Nielsen, Jakob
2009-11-24
useit.com
Keywords: interaction velocity, interaction granularity, UI granularity, user control,
TV, television, media forms, hypertext, branding, experience branding, video,
Web video, flow, production values, social context, granularity, velocity,
speed, pace, pacing, instant gratification
Summary: The granularity of user decisions is much finer on the Web, which is
dominated by the instant gratification of the user's needs in any given
instant. Content must cater to this rapid pace.
HYPER09
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CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
Hypertext'09: Proceedings of the 20th ACM Conference on Hypertext and
Hypermedia
/
Ciro Cattuto
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Giancarlo Ruffo
/
Filippo Menczer
Torino, Italy
2009-06-29 2009-07-01
2009
ACM
n.74
p.394
ISBN: 1-60558-486-X, 978-1-60558-486-7; ACM Order Number: 614091
Keynotes
Hypertext structure and usage
Spatial information organization
Information access
Link analysis
Applications
Content analysis
Tracking and exploiting user behavior
Social search
Networks properties
Recommendation and clustering
Weblogs
Perspective and point Of view
Demonstrations
Posters
Workshops
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How to mitigate the significant negative influence of computer anxiety on
ease of use perceptions
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Fakun, D.
Behaviour and Information Technology
2009
v.28
n.3
p.223-238
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: The direct or indirect influence of perceived ease of use (EOU) on user
acceptance of computerised information systems is well documented. This has led
to a number of studies examining system-dependent and system-independent
factors that influence EOU perceptions. Among the system-independent factors,
computer anxiety (CA) has been found to have a significant negative influence
on EOU perceptions. In other words, users judge an application's ease of use on
their level of CA. Since the negative relationship may jeopardise the
acceptance of an application by some user categories, this study examines the
conditions under which the relationship holds and what developers can do to
mitigate the relationship so as to increase user acceptance. The information
system examined is hypertext/hypermedia applications. The finding suggests that
an application that surpasses the expectations of most user categories is
likely to invalidate the relationship. Based on this study, a number of
recommendations aimed at hypermedia developers are proposed.
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combinFormation: Mixed-initiative composition of image and text surrogates
promotes information discovery
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Kerne, Andruid
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Koh, Eunyee
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Smith, Steven M.
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Webb, Andrew
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Dworaczyk, Blake
ACM Transactions on Information Systems
2009
v.27
n.1
p.5
Keywords: Creativity support tools, clustering, collections, creative cognition,
exploratory search, field study, focused crawler, information discovery,
mixed-initiative systems, relevance feedback, semantics, software agents
© Copyright 2009 ACM
Summary: combinFormation is a mixed-initiative creativity support tool for searching,
browsing, organizing, and integrating information. Images and text are
connected to represent surrogates (enhanced bookmarks), optimizing the use of
human cognitive facilities. Composition, an alternative to lists and spatial
hypertext, is used to represent a collection of surrogates as a connected
whole, using principles from art and design. This facilitates the creative
process of information discovery, in which humans develop new ideas while
finding and collecting information. To provoke the user to think about the
large space of potentially relevant information resources, a generative agent
proactively engages in collecting information resources, forming image and text
surrogates, and composing them visually. The agent develops the collection and
its visual representation over time, enabling the user to see ideas and
relationships. To keep the human in control, we develop interactive mechanisms
for authoring the composition and directing the agent. In a field study in an
interdisciplinary course on The Design Process, over a hundred students
alternated using combinFormation and Google+Word to collect prior work on
information discovery invention assignments. The students that used
combinFormation's mixed-initiative composition of image and text surrogates
performed better.
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SEA: Segment-enrich-annotate paradigm for adapting dialog-based content for
improved accessibility
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Candan, K. Selçuk
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Dönderler, Mehmet E.
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Hedgpeth, Terri
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Kim, Jong Wook
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Li, Qing
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Sapino, Maria Luisa
ACM Transactions on Information Systems
2009
v.27
n.3
p.15
Keywords: Web navigational aids, annotation, assistive technology for blind users,
educational discussion boards and Web sites, segmentation
© Copyright 2009 ACM
Summary: While navigation within complex information spaces is a problem for all
users, the problem is most evident with individuals who are blind who cannot
simply locate, point, and click on a link in hypertext documents with a mouse.
Users who are blind have to listen searching for the link in the document using
only the keyboard and a screen reader program, which may be particularly
inefficient in large documents with many links or deep hierarchies that are
hard to navigate. Consequently, they are especially penalized when the
information being searched is hidden under multiple layers of indirections. In
this article, we introduce a segment-enrich-annotate (SEA) paradigm for
adapting digital content with deep structures for improved accessibility. In
particular, we instantiate and evaluate this paradigm through the
iCare-Assistant, an assistive system for helping students who are blind in
accessing Web and electronic course materials. Our evaluations, involving the
participation of students who are blind, showed that the iCare-Assistant
system, built based on the SEA paradigm, reduces the navigational overhead
significantly and enables user who are blind access complex online course
servers effectively.
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Look-ahead and look-behind shortcuts in large item category hierarchies: The
impact on search performance
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Pardue, John Harold
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Landry, Jeffery Paul
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Kyper, Eric
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Lievano, Rodrigo
Interacting with Computers
2009
v.21
n.4
p.235-242
Keywords: Look-ahead; Shortcuts; Lostness; Time on task
© Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
2. Location breadcrumbs with look-ahead shortcuts
3. Research questions
4. Conceptual model
5. Methodology
6. Experimental results
7. Multivariate tests
7.1. Model specification
7.2. Overall test of significance
7.3. Model coefficients -- main effects
7.4. Conclusion: hypotheses H1a-H1d are rejected
7.5. Model coefficients -- interactions
7.6. Conclusion: hypotheses H2a and H2b are rejected
7.7. Summary of hypotheses tests
8. Conclusion
9. Implications and future work
Summary: Websites use shortcuts to facilitate navigation of large hierarchies of item
categories. Two common types of shortcuts used for this purpose are location
breadcrumbs and down-to-child/up-to-parent links; frequently both are employed
simultaneously. The combined used of these shortcuts provide proximal cues
which enable the user to look-ahead and look-behind in the navigational
structure. In this study, the impact of shortcut usage on search performance on
a known-item search task is estimated. A controlled experiment was conducted
using a realistic hypertext hierarchy of item categories. The results indicate
that greater use of shortcuts decreases both time on task and lostness for the
user, and that the decrease is associated with increased depth in the
hierarchy. These findings provide insight into possible performance trade-offs
involved in website designs that include look-ahead shortcuts for navigating
large item category hierarchies.
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Technology for supporting web information search and learning in Sign
Language
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Fajardo, Inmaculada
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Vigo, Markel
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Salmerón, Ladislao
Interacting with Computers
2009
v.21
n.4
p.243-256
Keywords: Web accessibility; Deafness; Sign Language; Information search; e-Learning;
Video Technology
© Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
2. Information search on the WWW by means of Sign Language
2.1. Hyperlinking by means of Sign Language
2.2. Queries in Sign Language
3. Web learning in Sign Language
3.1. Bilingual (sign plus text) web sites
3.2. SL-only web sites
3.3. Towards a rational combination of SL and text
4. Taxonomy of techniques for Sign Language generation on the WWW
5. Conclusions
Appendix A
Summary: Sign Languages (SL) are underrepresented in the digital world, which
contributes to the digital divide for the Deaf Community. In this paper, our
goal is twofold: (1) to review the implications of current SL generation
technologies for two key user web tasks, information search and learning and
(2) to propose a taxonomy of the technical and functional dimensions for
categorizing those technologies. The review reveals that although contents can
currently be portrayed in SL by means of videos of human signers or avatars,
the debate about how bilingual (text and SL) versus SL-only websites affect
signers' comprehension of hypertext content emerges as an unresolved issue in
need of further empirical research. The taxonomy highlights that videos of
human signers are ecological but require a high-cost group of experts to
perform text to SL translations, video editing and web uploading. Avatar
technology, generally associated with automatic text-SL translators, reduces
bandwidth requirements and human resources but it lacks reliability. The
insights gained through this review may enable designers, educators or users to
select the technology that best suits their goals.
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Human-computer interaction -- Whence and whither?
Special Issue Papers Section
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Shackel, Brian
Interacting with Computers
2009
v.21
n.5/6
p.353-366
© Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
2. Background and progenitors
2.1. Human-oriented disciplines
2.2. Computer-oriented disciplines
3. Changes in computing and the growth of HCI problems
4. Beginnings of HCI (1950-1970)
5. Foundations of HCI (1970-1985)
6. Development of HCI (1980-1995)
6.1. Growth in journals, books, and society groups
6.2. Growth of papers at conferences and in the HILITES database
6.3. The stimulus of funding programs
7. Continuities from the past and perspectives into the future
7.1. From system supremacy to personal empowerment
7.2. From multi-access to the Internet
7.3. From augmentation to electronic journals
7.4. And to CSCW, hypertext, and digital libraries
7.5. From system design to interface usability and back again
7.6. Other issues towards the future
8. Conclusions
Summary: In this article, an overview is presented of the growth of work in
human-computer interaction (HCI) over the last 40 years. Inevitably much must
be omitted, but the referenced papers may fill some of the gaps. Various
formative influences and contributing disciplines are noted. Aspects of
research and human factors knowledge are prominent, but attention is also given
to technology, applied problems, and design for usability. Finally, after
summarizing the growth in three age-group partitions, some of the major threads
of development are noted under the heading of continuities from the past and
perspectives into the future.
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Introduction to Special Issue on Adaptive Hypermedia
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De Bra, Paul
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Brusilovsky, Peter
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.1
p.1-3
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
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AH 12 years later: a comprehensive survey of adaptive hypermedia methods and
techniques
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Knutov, Evgeny
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De Bra, Paul
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Pechenizkiy, Mykola
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.1
p.5-38
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: A hypermedia application offers its users much freedom to navigate through a
large hyperspace. Adaptive hypermedia (AH) offers personalized content,
presentation, and navigation support. Many adaptive hypermedia systems (AHS)
are tightly integrated with one specific application and/or use a limited
number of techniques and methods. This makes it difficult to capture all of
them in one generic model. In this paper we examine adaptation questions stated
in the very beginning of the AH era and elaborate on their recent
interpretations. We will reconsider design issues for application independent
generic AHS, review open questions of system extensibility introduced in
adjacent research fields and try to come up with an up-to-date taxonomy of
adaptation techniques and an extensive set of requirements for a new adaptive
system reference model or architecture, to be developed in the future.
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Aspect-oriented adaptation specification in web information systems: a
semantics-based approach
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Casteleyn, Sven
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Van Woensel, William
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van der Sluijs, Kees
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Houben, Geert-Jan
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.1
p.39-71
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: By tailoring content access, presentation, and functionality to the user's
location, device, personal preferences, and needs, Web Information Systems
(WISs) have become increasingly user and context-dependent. In order to realize
such adaptive behavior, Web engineers are thus faced with an additional
challenge: engineering the required adaptation concerns. In this article, we
present, in the context of a WIS design method, an adaptation engineering
process that is separated from the regular Web design process. Our approach is
based on the use of two key elements: (1) aspect-oriented techniques to achieve
the separation of (adaptation) concerns; and (2) the exploitation of semantic
information and metadata associated with the content, for enhanced expressivity
and flexibility. By combining these key elements, we demonstrate a robust,
rich, consistent, and flexible way to specify adaptation in WISs.
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Topic development pattern analysis-based adaptation of information spaces
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Ahmed, Syed Toufeeq
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Candan, K. Selçuk
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Han, Sangwoo
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Qi, Yan
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.1
p.73-96
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: While navigation within complex information spaces is a challenge for all
users, the problem is most evident with individuals who are blind or visually
impaired. A particular challenge faced by students who are blind when accessing
documents in digital libraries is that long documents are almost impenetrable
for these users who cannot skim through large documents effectively and who
cannot visually organize and re-organize documents for later use in new
contexts. We highlight that adaptation and personalization of textual media can
be possible only through novel algorithms that can segment media content to its
basic information units and enable users to pick, recombine, and re-organize
these units into new personalized documents. This is a multi-faceted problem
that requires research into technical challenges from user modeling to context
analysis. In this paper, we focus on two specific challenges key to the
adaptation of textual media: content-segmentation and content-reorganization.
In particular, we show that topic development analysis is fundamental in
supporting both of these tasks. The algorithms proposed in this paper analyze
topic development patterns without having to distill the specific topics,
thereby keeping the overall analysis and adaptation processes light weight.
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Addictive links: the motivational value of adaptive link annotation
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Brusilovsky, Peter
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Sosnovsky, Sergey
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Yudelson, Michael
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.1
p.97-118
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: Adaptive link annotation is a popular adaptive navigation support
technology. Empirical studies of adaptive annotation in the educational context
have demonstrated that it can help students to acquire knowledge faster,
improve learning outcomes, reduce navigational overhead, and encourage
non-sequential navigation. In this paper, we present our exploration of a
lesser known effect of adaptive annotation, its ability to significantly
increase students' motivation to work with non-mandatory educational content.
We explored this effect and confirmed its significance in the context of two
different adaptive hypermedia systems. The paper presents and discusses the
results of our work.
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Now with Added Experience?
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Blythe, Mark
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Hassenzahl, Marc
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Law, Effie
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.2
p.119-128
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
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Toward an articulation of interaction esthetics
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Löwgren, Jonas
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.2
p.129-146
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: Even though the emerging field of user experience generally acknowledges the
importance of esthetic qualities in interactive products and services, there is
a lack of approaches recognizing the fundamentally temporal nature of
interaction esthetics. By means of interaction criticism, I introduce four
concepts that begin to characterize the esthetic qualities of interaction.
Pliability refers to the sense of malleability and tightly coupled interaction
that makes the use of an interactive visualization captivating. Rhythm is an
important characteristic of certain types of interaction, from the sub-second
pacing of musical interaction to the hour-scale ebb and flow of peripheral
emotional communication. Dramaturgical structure is not only a feature of
online role-playing games, but plays an important role in several design genres
from the most mundane to the more intellectually sophisticated. Fluency is a
way to articulate the gracefulness with which we are able to handle multiple
demands for our attention and action in augmented spaces.
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Designing for human emotion: ways of knowing
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Lottridge, Danielle
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Moore, Gale
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.2
p.147-172
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: Recently researchers from a range of disciplines have begun inquiring into
the place of emotion in the design and use of technology to ask how, and in
what ways, products and systems evoke emotions in people and how these emotions
can be understood, measured, or more generally assessed? This diversity of
perspectives has brought theoretical and methodological richness to the field,
yet has made it increasing challenging to make sense of the literature. This
paper argues that by organizing these diverse accounts of design according to
the underlying epistemology and theoretical perspective, it is possible to
accommodate a variety of approaches and provide a way to give meaning to the
diverse outcomes. Published papers representing a range of the approaches to
research on human emotion were identified in the literature, and assessed in
terms of researcher motivation, the way "emotion" is conceptualized and
operationalized, the nature of the knowledge claims, and the background
assumptions of the authors, both implicit and explicit. By mapping research
production to more fundamental assumptions and values, a space is opened for
more constructive and nuanced dialog on the validity, meaning, and significance
of diversity for advancing the field overall.
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Mood Swings: design and evaluation of affective interactive art
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Bialoskorski, Leticia S. S.
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Westerink, Joyce H. D. M.
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van den Broek, Egon L.
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.2
p.173-191
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: The field of affective computing is concerned with developing emphatic
products, such as affective consumer products, affective games, and affective
art. This paper describes Mood Swings, an affective interactive art system,
which interprets and visualizes affect expressed by a person. Mood Swings
consists of eight luminous orbs that react to movement. When a person
experiences certain emotion, his/her movements are claimed to have certain
characteristics. Based on the integration of a framework for affective
movements and a color model, Mood Swings recognizes affective movement
characteristics, and subsequently displays a color that matches the expressed
emotion. Mood Swings was evaluated in a museum for contemporary art by 36
museum visitors. The Trajectory of Interaction (ToI) was applied to assess
common phases in interacting with Mood Swings, i.e. response, control,
contemplation, belonging, and disengagement. The visitors who interacted with
Mood Swings were videotaped. Results showed that The ToI could be identified,
although not all phases were experienced by everyone. Few participants reached
the contemplation phase and none of them reached the belonging phase. All
together, the introduction of the new affective interactive art system was a
success.
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Designing for playful photography
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Petersen, Marianne Graves
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Ljungblad, Sara
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Håkansson, Maria
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.2
p.193-209
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: This paper highlights the concept of playful photography as an emerging and
important area for Human Computer Interaction (HCI) research, through bringing
together three research projects investigating new ways of engaging with
digital photography with theories related to playfulness and experience-centred
design. Drawing upon this, we start to unpack playful photography and its
characteristics. Instead of aiming for a unifying theory of photography related
to experience-centred research, we take a reflective stance on our own research
work. This is intended to encourage a critical discussion about playful
photography, as well as support the on-going research in this area with a
possible theoretical perspective.
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Designing in the face of change: the elusive push toward emotionally
resonate experiences
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Schoenholz, Matt
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Kolko, Jon
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.2
p.211-220
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: Designers are facing simultaneous and extremely meaningful shifts from
artifact to experience, from styling to emotional resonance, and from the
massive and faceless to the local and personal. These changes are not
immediate, and are not complete; just as they didn't begin overnight, they will
continue to evolve as culture continues to morph. These shifts, however, have
already had -- and will continue to have -- unprecedented effects on the
essence of business, commerce, and trade. Each of the shifts, taken
individually, tells a compelling tale of opportunity and cultural change; when
considered together, the three shifts paint a picture of a world where the
human condition is empowered by the connections of design and business, and
where the products, systems, and services that are bought and sold have a
positive impact on society and culture.
While these dramatic shifts are changing the very essence of industrialized
business and culture, the industrial design process that is commonly taught and
practiced hasn't similarly evolved. Thus, as the Fortune 500 and Global 2000
realize the need for cohesive ecosystem design and search for the "end-to-end
product experience," design consultancies are struggling to deliver more
complicated offerings in shorter timeframes. A new process -- a more fluid,
responsible, and integrated design process -- is necessary to solve the
business and cultural problems facing by today's designers. This new process
implies a push away from artifact and toward insight, with great repercussions
for the traditionally "physical" field of product design.
This paper summarizes trends the authors have seen while working at a
strategic level with major stakeholders of very large corporations. While the
particular clients change and the nuances of the design problems are always
different, we've seen these three shifts while dealing with clients in consumer
electronics, enterprise hardware, telecommunications, and other assorted
corporate disciplines. It is, therefore, helpful to understand our respective
backgrounds in order to realize the point of view from which we write.
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Editors' Introduction
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Cunliffe, Daniel
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Tudhope, Douglas
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.3
p.221-222
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
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Automatic device-tailored evaluation of mobile web guidelines
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Vigo, Markel
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Aizpurua, Amaia
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Arrue, Myriam
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Abascal, Julio
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.3
p.223-244
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: Mobile web guidelines aim at providing developers with guidance to develop
web content suitable for mobile devices. Automatic guideline review tools help
evaluating conformance with respect to these guidelines in a systematic way.
Yet, a number of mobile web guidelines refer to specific device features such
as screen size, support for particular picture formats or support for pointing
device. Since mobile devices are very diverse, in order to address the greater
number of devices, guidelines adopt a device profile that may be considered as
the common denominator device which is able to provide a satisfactory
experience. While this approach is useful to define guidelines and make them
more understandable, it introduces critical inaccuracies that make tool
effectiveness decrease. This paper presents an application that considers
specific device features in the evaluation process to produce device-tailored
reports. As a result, higher rates of evaluation tool completeness, correctness
and specificity are obtained.
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A case study-based investigation of students' experiences with social
software tools
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Minocha, Shailey
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.3
p.245-265
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: The term "social software" covers a range of tools which allow users to
interact and share data with other users, primarily via the web. Blogs, wikis,
podcasts and social networking websites are some of the tools that are being
used in educational, social and business contexts. We have examined the use of
social software in the UK further and higher education to collect evidence of
the effective use of social software in student learning and engagement. We
applied case study methodology involving educators and students from 26
initiatives. In this paper, we focus on the student experience: educational
goals of using social software; benefits to the students; and the challenges
they experience. Our investigations have shown that social software supports a
variety of ways of learning: sharing of resources; collaborative learning;
problem-based and inquiry-based learning; and reflective learning. Students
gain transferable skills of team working, negotiation, communication and
managing digital identities. Although these tools enhance a student's sense of
community, the need to share and collaborate brings in additional
responsibility and workload, which some students find inflexible and "forced".
Our findings show that students have concerns about usability, privacy and the
public nature of social software tools for academic activities.
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Does tailoring help people find the information they need?
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Colineau, Nathalie
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Paris, Cécile
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia
2009
v.15
n.3
p.267-286
© Copyright 2009 Taylor and Francis
Summary: In this paper, we present an empirical study assessing the impact of
tailoring on information-seeking tasks. Our aim was to evaluate whether
providing tailored information would help people find the information they need
more quickly and accurately. Our results show that tailored documents have an
impact on information-seeking, at least when the information to be found is
spread over a number of sources and needs to be synthesised. With documents
tailored to their needs, people can find the information they seek more
quickly, and overall, more accurately. In our study, we also investigated how
people looked for information to gain a better understanding of the strategies
employed by people to find information.
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Using Synchronization of Interaction Techniques for Implementing a
Hypervideo System
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Dardala, Marian
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Reveiu, Adriana
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Furtuna, Titus Felix
Romanian Journal of Human-Computer Interaction
2009
v.2
n.2
p.119-130
Keywords: hypertext, hypermedia, hypervideo, frame segment tree, video stream,
interaction synchronization
© Copyright 2009 SIGCHI Romania
Summary: Multimedia applications use special techniques to browse their own content
such as hypertext and hypermedia. These two concepts provide for the users
semantic alternative in accessing a multimedia document. A particular way of
achieving the concept of hypermedia is hypervideo. The main difficulty for
realize such a system is given the fact that video data has spatial feature as
well as a temporal dimension that means it lasts in time. To implement a
hypervideo system has to define many modules having specialized functions and
that are going to communicate each other. Thus, the article presents a data
structure adapted to manage the synchronization of user interaction events,
according to the timeline of the video sequence and the objects in view, which
received the event. Besides the particular data structure are also presented
usual operations for its maintaining as well as to explore it in the hypervideo
system context.
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Digital heritage
Video showcase
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Sankar, Aditya
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Prasad, Archana
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Joy, Joseph
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Datha, Naren
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Manchepalli, Ajay
Proceedings of ACM CHI 2009 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
2009
v.2
p.3503-3504
Keywords: heritage, prototyping, user experience design, visualization, world wide web
and hypermedia
© Copyright 2009 ACM
Summary: The India Digital Heritage Project is a collaborative initiative between the
industry and academia, with the aim of using novel techniques to efficiently
capture and present various aspects of India's diverse heritage, while at the
same time advancing the state-of-the art in related research areas.
As part of the Digital Heritage Project, we have built a prototype virtual
tour of a South Indian temple that, for the first time, integrates technologies
such as Photosynth and HDView, opening up new ways to interactively explore
visually complex sites. These technologies are combined with audio, video and
guided walkthroughs, to provide a compelling end user experience. The
accompanying video highlights the key scenarios of our prototype.